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Focus on experimental archaeology

Experimental archaeology has been used to document such issues in various fields of archaeobotany, such as the formation processes of desiccated and charred plant remains (Guarino & Sciarillo 2004; Van der Veen 2007); the model sequences of grape (Margaritis & Jones 2006) and olive oil processing (Braadbaart & al. 2016); the contexts of starch loss, transformation and preservation (Barton & Torrence 2015) and the processes and technologies of cereal-based porridge-type preparations (González Carretero & al. 2017), inter alia.

In the field of organic residues, R. P. Evershed, in a seminal article (2008) has argued for the need of experimental approaches to absorbed biomaterials in archaeology to investigate critical questions such asvessel use, physical and chemical phenomena relating to deposition and transformations, and to identify new biomarkers (with a bibliography to date). Experimental archaeology has originally been applied to document the main fields of research within the discipline: fatty acids (Evershed & al. 2008) and the processing of resins and pitch, particularly beech tar (Hayek & al. 1990; Puchinger & al. 2007; Mitkidou & al. 2008; Rageot & al. 2013; Groom & al. 2013).

Experimental archaeology has also proven its worth by providing breakthroughs regarding amphora permeation. These have enabled us to challenge archaeological assumptions about the contents of recipients, such as wine or oil (Romanus & al., 2009). Over the years, the questions addressed have become more sophisticated, with studies combining experimental, ethnoarchaeological and archaeological methods to investigate the chemical residues preserved in floors (Pecci & al., 2013, 2017), the ceramic retention mechanisms of potential wine markers (Teodor & al., 2014), and the thermal degradation of a mixture of pitch and honey (Duce & al., 2015). However, no comprehensive programme has yet been designed to address aromatic product biomarkers, particularly those from flowers and leaves. This includes the specific biomarkers of different Mediterranean conifers, European oil signatures (other than olive and Brassicaceae), complex multi-element recipes and preparation processes. Some case-study experiments have been conducted to elucidate the results obtained for a Roman cosmetic (Evershed & al., 2004) and to understand boiled epicuticular leaf waxes, albeit only in the case of Brassicaceae (the cabbage family) thus far (Charters & Evershed, 1997). The ‘Seplasia Project’, conducted by the Centre Jean Bérard in Naples, aimed to recreate Roman perfumes based on archaeological, iconographical, textual, and biochemical data (Brun & Fernández, 2015, pp. 181–233). Six ancient recipes known from Greek and Latin authors (Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny the Elder) were recreated. The ancient production processes were observed, but the production was carried out in modern laboratories using modern technical equipment (Brun & Fernandez, 2015, pp. 200–234).

For the Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean, the Italian Centre for Experimental Archaeology ‘Antiquitates’ of Blera conducted experimental archaeology tests to verify the interpretation of archaeological data from Pyrgos excavations in Cyprus, as well as to assess the effectiveness of ancient technologies. Replicas of Bronze Age ceramic vases were produced to (1) identify their function in a perfume factory and (2) demonstrate the use of maceration and proto-distillation through experimentation with olive, almond oils, as well as aromatic herbs such as rosemary, lavender, marjoram and myrtle (Belgiorno 2007, pp. 136-148).

For the Archaic Western Mediterranean, our team began conducting experimental trials in 2011, carrying out yearly campaigns and integrating student groups of the Southern Brittany University (UBS). A skilled archaeological potter reproduced different types of Phoenician, Etruscan and Greek Archaic pottery. Based on the results of biochemical analyses from our two research programmes, as well as some archaeological and botanical research, the focus was on medicinal, cosmetic and perfume-making techniques in central Italy and Sardinia during the Archaic period. The objectives were to (1) elucidate the technical function of ingredients such as beeswax, honey, conifer resin and pitch, and (2) regain lost know-how and the successive stages of making medicinal and perfumed oils.

Bibliography

Barton H. & Torrence R. 2015- “Cooking up recipes for ancient starch: assessing current methodologies and looking to the future”, Journal of Archaeological Science, 56, 2015, 194–201.

Belgiorno M.R. (ed.) 2007- I profumi di Afrodite e il segreto dell’olio. Scoperte archeologiche a Cipro, Rome. 

Braadbaart F., Marinova E. & Sarpaki A. 2016-  “Charred olive stones: experimental and archaeological evidence for recognizing olive processing residues used as fuel”, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 25, 5, 415–430.

Brun J.P. & Fernandez X. 2015– Parfums antiques. De l’archéologue au chimiste, Milan. 

Charters S. & Evershed R.P. 1997- “Simulation Experiments for Determining the Use of Ancient Pottery Vessels: the Behaviour of Epicuticular Leaf Wax During Boiling of a Leafy Vegetable”, Journal of Archaeological Science, 24, 1, 1-7.

Duce C., Orsini S., Spepi A., Colombini M.P., Tiné M.R. &  Ribechini E. 2015- “Thermal degradation chemistry of archaeological pine pitch containing beeswax as an additive”, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 111, 254–264.

Evershed R.P. 2008- “Experimental approaches to the interpretation of absorbed organic residues in archaeological ceramics”, World Archaeology, 40, 1, 26–47.

Evershed R.P., Berstan R., Grew F., Copley M.S., Charmant A.J.H., Barham E., Mottram H.R., Brown G. 2004- “Archaeology: formulation of a Roman cosmetic”, Nature, 432, 7013, 35–36.

González Carretero L., Wollstonecroft M., Fuller D.Q. 2017- “A methodological approach to the study of archaeological cereal meals: a case study at Çatalhöyük East (Turkey)”, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 26, 4, 1–18.

Groom P., Schenck T., Pedersen G.M. 2013- “Experimental explorations into the ceramic dry distillation of Betula pubescens (downy birch) bark tar”, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 7, 1, 47–58.

Guarino C. & Sciarrillo R. 2004- “Carbonized seeds in a protohistoric house: results of hearth and house experiments”, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 13, 1, 65–70.

Hayek E.W.H., Krenmayr P., Lohninger H., Jordis U., Moxhe W. & Sauter F. 1990- “Identification of Archaeological and Recent Wood Tar Pitches Using Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry and Pattern Recognition”, Analytical Chemistry, 62, 2038–2043.

Margaritis E. &Jones M.K. 2006- “Beyond cereals: crop processing and Vitis vinifera L. Ethnography, experiment and charred grape remains from Hellenistic Greece”, Journal of Archaeological Science, 33, 6, 784–805.

Mitkidou S., Dimitrakoudi E., Urem-Kotsou D., Papadopoulou D., Kotsakis K., Stratis J.A. & Stephanidou-Stephanatou I. 2008- “Organic residue analysis of Neolithic pottery from North Greece”, Microchimica Acta, 493–498.

Pecci A., Cau Ontiveros M.Á., Valdambrini C. & Inserra F. 2013- “Understanding residues of oil production: chemical analyses of floors in traditional mills”, Journal of Archaeological Science, 40, 2, 883–893.

Pecci A., Barba L. & Ortiz A. 2017- “Chemical Residues as Anthropic Activity Markers. Ethnoarchaeology, Experimental Archaeology and Archaeology of Food Production and Consumption”, Environmental Archaeology, 22, 4, 343-353.

Puchinger L., Sauter F., Leder S. & Varmuza K. 2007- “Studies in organic archaeometry VII – Differentiation of wood and bark pitches by pyrolysis capillary gas chromatography (PY-CGC)”, Annali di Chimica, 97, 7, 513–525.

Rageot M., Peche-Quilichini K. & Regert M. 2013- “Quand les Corses cherchaient du bouleau. Archéologie, histoire et chimie des colles autour de 1000 av. J.-C.”, Santari, 32, 32–37.

Romanus K., Baeten J., Poblome J., Accardo S., Degryse P., Jacobs P.A., de Vos D. & Waelkens M. 2009- “Wine and olive oil permeation in pitched and non-pitched ceramics: relation with results from archaeological amphorae from Sagalassos, Turkey”, Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 3, 900–909.

Teodor E., Badea G., Alecu A., Calu L. & Radu G.L. 2014- “Interdisciplinary study on pottery experimentally impregnated with wine”, Chemical Papers, 68, 8, 1022–1029.

Van der Veen M. 2007- “Formation processes of desiccated and carbonized plant remains – the identification of routine practice”, Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 6, 968–990.